Worked out examples principle: people gain deep understanding of a skill domain when they receive worked out examples in the beginning of the cognitive skill acquisition.
-Learners need to get some understanding of the domain before they start solving problems.
worked out examples: problem formulation, solution steps, final solution.
-support initial acquisition of the cognitive skills
two consequences of a learner's prior knowledge:
1- the learner is unable to apply domain specific solution procedures
- general problem-solving strategies must be employed
2- learner cannot build bigger meaningful information chunks - creates intrinsic load
- learners adopt means-end-strategy: where learner focuses on the details of a problem's solution but not on the principles behind it - creates extraneous load and leaves no space for generating self explanations (germane load)
-Worked out examples free space for understanding.
-expertise reversal effect of worked-out examples: if the learner is in later stages of expertise
Well-designed examples:
- Guidelines for fostering example processing:
Guidelines of self-explanation elicitation: Self explanation activities:
principle based explanations: learner assigns meaning to operators by identifying the domain principles
explication of goal operator combinations: learner assigns meaning to operators by identifying the subgoals achieved by these operators
example comparisons: learner notices similarities or differences between different examples
anticipative reasoning: learner tries to anticipate the next solution step and confirms his prediction by looking it up
Help Guidelines: instructional explanations
provision on learner demand: should be presented on learner demand, to ensure they are used on time and during the knowledge construction activities - so no split attention effect
minimalism: short, minimal
focus on principles: supported by principle based explanations
related to the example at hand
provided in reaction to a learner's error
animated agent delivering explanations and using gaze and gesture to direct attention to the relevant parts of the examples
- Guideliness for example design:
The easy mapping guideline: -integrating, making the mapping between representations easier,
-combining visual and aural presentation modality,
- signaling,
frees cognitive resources, hence examples become effective.
The structure-emphasizing guideline: employed when the goal is learning to differentiate between different problem types in a domain that can be easily mixed up
The meaningful building blocks guideline: assembling solution steps in a new way, subgoals should be made salient by visually isolating or assigning a label.
Fading procedure for transferring from earlier stages to later stages of acquiring skills: 1. a complete example
2. a structurally identical incomplete example
3. number of blanks are increased
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