4C/ID

Mayer, R.E. (Ed.) (2005). Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge. [Chapters 5]

4 C/ID suggests that four components are necessary to realize complex learning:

big circles are learning tasks
learning tasks within a dotted rectangle form learning task class
amount of gray inside a learning task shows the guidance level
guidance decreases in the later learning task in a class
L shaped light gray surrounding learning task class are the supportive information
dark grey rectangle with arrows coming upwards are the procedural information
series of little circles represent practice items


1-Learning tasks have different descriptions (worked examples, completing tasks and conventional tasks) and different levels of guidance
2-Supportive information:to perform problem-solving and reasoning, students need to study requires domain models (conceptual - what is this, structural - how is this organized, and causal - how does this work) and SAPs (Systematic Approaches to Problem Solving) and receive cognitive feedback.
3-Procedural information: how-to instructions specify how to perform the routine aspects of the task
pre-requisite information for learner to correctly understand the how to instructions
corrective feedback is given if errors are made. 
4-Part-task practice: set of practice items for the additional training of routine aspects.


4C/ID assumes that:
- human knowledge is stored in cognitive schemata (as Sweller's).
- working memory is limited 
- long term memory is unlimited in capacity
- learning is related to 
     1- schemata construction
     2- schemata automation
According to the 4C/ID, learners' work on learning tasks (component 1) and study supportive information (component 2) to construct schemata. procedural information (component 3) and part-task practice (component 4) help automate the schemata.


Forms of Schema construction:
   induction: abstracting away from concrete learning tasks, generalization and discrimination (on the basis of learning task, component1)
   eloboration: learners connect new information to knowledge that they already have in memory (on the basis of supportive information, component2)
Forms of Schema automation:
   knowledge compilation: learners embed new information in highly domain-specific schemata that steer behavior (on the basis of procedural information, component3)
   strengthening: domain-specific schemata accumulate strength each time it is applied (on the basis of part task practice, component4).


Learning Tasks and Learning in Simulated Task Environment
Sequencing Principle: sequencing learning tasks from simple to complex (pretraining) in 4C/ID uses task classes for sequencing.
Fidelity Principle: high fidelity is when tasks are performed in environment very close to real task environment. According to 4C/ID, learning tasks should start with performing in low fidelity environment.
Variability Principle: tasks must be sufficiently different from each other. 4C/ID suggests high variability in each task classes.
Individualization Principle: adaptive systems, dynamically select tasks based on learner's characteristics. For 4C/ID, performance for each learning task should be assessed for cognitive feedback.
Training-wheels Principle: constraining learners' performance by making sure they cannot perform every action - training wheels metaphor. IN 4C/ID, this is included in the way guidance decreases as expertise increases
Completions-strategy Principle: starting with worked examples, continues with completion tasks, and ends with conventional tasks. This order should be from a novice learner towards an expert learner. In 4C/ID, this is included as a way to decrease support within one task class.


Supportive Information and Learning from Hypermedia
Redundancy principle: redundant information has a negative effect on learning. Information that is helpful for novice learners can be redundant for expert learners - expertise reversal effect (Kalyuga et al., 2000). 4C/ID takes this into account and hence the supportive information is always an addition to or embellishment of the information given for the previous task class.
Self-explanation principle: learner's explaining the solution steps of worked examples is effective for learning. 4C/ID promotes the elaboration and schema construction.
Self-pacing principle: Learner can control the pace of a multimedia presentation - segmentation effect by Mayer and Moreno (2003). In 4C/ID, the case studies and modeling examples can be controlled by the learner.


Procedural Information and Electronic Performance Support Systems
Temporal-split attention principle: learners perform better in a multimedia instruction when picture and words are given simultaneously. In 4C/ID, this principle is important for the presentation of procedural information, showing it at the right time frame.
Spatial split-attention principle: learners perform better in a multimedia message when picture and words are integrated physically. In 4C/ID, procedural information should be physically integrated with the related learning task the learner is working on.
Signaling principle: learner perform better when his attention is focused on some important aspects of the learning task. In 4C/ID, procedural information is related to routine aspects of the task by pointing at, or if video based  highlighting these aspects.
Modality principle: learners perform better when they are given spoken text instead of printed text. In 4C/ID, procedural information, how to perform routine aspects of learning tasks, can be spoken right in time instead of explaining with on screen text.


Part-Task Practice and Drill and Practice CBT Programs
Component-fluency principle: drill and practice on one or more routine aspects of a learning task is effective. Strengthens and achieves high level of automation. In 4C/ID, part-task practice starts only after learner is introduced to the context of the learning task.