Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work

Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R.E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86

Two opposite thoughts:
1- minimal or no guidance, learners need to construct their own knowledge by experience, discovery learning
2- direct instructional guidance, that fully explains the concepts and procedures
This paper argues that the minimal guidance during instruction is ineffective.

Minimally guided approach = problem based learning, discovery learning, inquiry learning, experiential learning, constructivist learning

Two main assumptions for instructions with minimal guidance:
1- better when students are challenged to solve authentic problems, and when they construct their own knowledge
2- knowledge can best be acquired through experience based on the procedures

Wickens (1992) suggests that large amounts of guidance can result in better performance during practice, but too much guidance is not good for later performance.

Human cognitive architecture: Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) sensory memory, working memory and long term memory is taken as base.
- The instructional consequences should alter the long term memory, which results in learning.
Working memory is the cognitive structure in which conscious processing occurs.
- limited in duration and capacity
Problem solving, inquiry based learning, caused heavy load on working memory

Problem-based search causes high cognitive load in working memory

Constructivism and guidance: knowledge is constructed by learners
no evidence that less information can help learners enhance their ability to construct

discovery learning --> experiential learning --> problem-based learning --> inquiry learning--> constructivist instructional techniques
Some studies noted that classrooms with pure discover methods and minimal feedback causes students become frustrated and lost, and their confusion can lead to misconception.

Cognitive load theory suggests that no guidance in exploring a complex environment causes heavy cognitive load in working memory, which interferes with learning.
-for novice learners who do not have the schemas related to the new information
-for expert learners, there is no negative effect of free exploration

Worked examples: an example of strongly guided instruction
worked example effect occurs when learners cannot solve test problems while others perform better on worked examples.
-novice learners studying worked examples are much better than the ones study with discovery or constructing a solution to a problem.
-reduces working memory load because search is reduced
-directs attention to learning the essential relations between problem solving moves
problem-solving search: ineffective for altering long term memory because it is function is to find a problem to a solution.
-results in no learning
-overload for working memory
-requires working memory resources that are not related to learning
process worksheet: rules of thumb. Students can:
-consult while they are working on learning tasks
-note their intermediate results of problem solving process
-create their own feedback
experiential learning: 1-carrying out an action, discovering the effect of that action
2- understand the effects of the same action in same circumstance
3- understanding the general principle of the instance
individual differences: moderate the impact of the instruction
ATI (aptitude-treatment interaction) studies: examine effects of different instructional methods on students’ aptitude and traits
Kyllonen and Lajoie (2003) found that strong treatments benefited less able learners and vice versa.
Cronbach and Snow (1977) described strong treatments as highly structures instructional presentations (provides explicit organizations of information and learning) and weaker treatments as relatively unstructured (provides less learning support).

*discovery learning is successful when students have prerequisite knowledge and have some prior structured experiences.