Mayer, R.E. (Ed.) (2005). Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge. [Chapter 11]
concise narrated animation contains essential material
essential material: is needed to understanding the material (not extraneous material which is not needed to understand)
if concise narrated animation containing complex material given at a fast rate result can be essential overload
essential overload: occurs when the amount of cognitive processing for understanding the multimedia instruction exceeds the learner's cognitive capacity.
essential processing: cognitive processing required make sense out of the essential material.
cognitive capacity: total amount of processing a learner can achieve in working memory by both visual and auditory channels.
Three principles for multimedia design that can minimize the essential overload:
Segmenting: people learn more deeply when a multimedia message is presented in user-paced segments rather then continuous unit.
Pre-training: people learn more deeply from a multimedia message when they know the names and characteristics of the main concepts.
Modality: people learn more deeply from a multimedia message when the words are spoken rather than printed.
Two essential overload scenarios:
1) e.g a narrated animation about a complex system presented in a fast pace
essential processing overloads both (visual and auditory) channels
to reduce the essential overload:
-segmenting principle allows time between the segments and slows the pace
-pre-training principle: pre-training in the names ad characteristics of the concept equips the learner with prior knowledge
2) e.g animation with concurrent on screen text presented on a fast pace
essential overload in visual channel
to reduce this overload:
-modality principle: present words as narration rather than printed helps transfer some of the overload in visual channel to auditory channel
Research: all done on low knowledge learners
Research on segmenting principle: segmented group vs continuous group, segmented group performed better in transfer tests.
Research on pre-training principle: pre-training vs no pre-training group, pre-training group performed better in transfer tests
Research on modality principle: graphics-and-printed-words group vs graphics-and-spoken-words group, people scored better on transfer tests after learning with graphics and narration.
Wednesday, March 30, 2011
Sunday, March 20, 2011
Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second language multimedia learning environment
Plass, J.L., Chun, D.M., Mayer, R.E., & Leutner, D. (1998). Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second language multimedia learning environment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 25-36
The paper studies the importance of visual and verbal learning preferences for learning a second language. The study supports the theory of multimedia learning: learners actively select relevant verbal and visual information, organize the information into mental representations, and integrate
these newly constructed visual and verbal representations with one another.
The paper accepts Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning and also talks about learning environment, in which the learner can decide on his/her preference for learning.
Study looks at the differences in visualizers and verbalizers’ behavior in a multimedia learning environment.
Environment in this study: authentic second language learning environment with videos, pictures, and spoken words.
Two different levels of learning:
1- acquisition of single vocabulary items (a form of rote learning)
2- comprehension of the basic events in a text (a form of constructive learning)
Theory of multimedia learning
Selecting, organizing, and integrating
1-select verbal/visual information
2-organize them into verbal/visual representation
3-integrate verbal and visual by constructing referential connections between visual and verbal representations
-words that are coded in to modes (verbally and nonverbally) are better learned than only verbally coded words
vocabulary learning: rote learning
reading comprehension: constructing meaning
Learning Preferences: Visualizers and Verbalizers
-the way students interact with their environment and extract information from it.
-differences among students when they acquire and process visual versus verbal information.
-if the learner is not presented with the preferred mode of information, the word understanding can be less.
Results of experiment:
-learning of the translation of the German words is better when learners can select two modes (verbal and visual) then one mode alone, which is better than selection of none.
-recall of the translations of German words is better when preferred mode is used to retrieve them
Conclusion:
-students learn more effectively when they can select visual and verbal modes than when they have access to only one mode or neither.
-visualizers benefit from visual modes of presented material more than do verbalizers,
-verbalizers benefit more from verbal modes of presented material than do visualizers.
Attribute X Treatment interaction (ATI) between learning preferences and type of information:
-visualizers performed better on visual and verbal annotations than only for verbal annotations and verbalizers performed well on both types of propositions.
The study:
-suggests that learners should have options for selecting and processing material presented in both visual and verbal modes.
-provides evidence for Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning
-suggests concerns for different learning preferences of individuals.
The paper studies the importance of visual and verbal learning preferences for learning a second language. The study supports the theory of multimedia learning: learners actively select relevant verbal and visual information, organize the information into mental representations, and integrate
these newly constructed visual and verbal representations with one another.
The paper accepts Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning and also talks about learning environment, in which the learner can decide on his/her preference for learning.
Study looks at the differences in visualizers and verbalizers’ behavior in a multimedia learning environment.
Environment in this study: authentic second language learning environment with videos, pictures, and spoken words.
Two different levels of learning:
1- acquisition of single vocabulary items (a form of rote learning)
2- comprehension of the basic events in a text (a form of constructive learning)
Theory of multimedia learning
Selecting, organizing, and integrating
1-select verbal/visual information
2-organize them into verbal/visual representation
3-integrate verbal and visual by constructing referential connections between visual and verbal representations
-words that are coded in to modes (verbally and nonverbally) are better learned than only verbally coded words
vocabulary learning: rote learning
reading comprehension: constructing meaning
Learning Preferences: Visualizers and Verbalizers
-the way students interact with their environment and extract information from it.
-differences among students when they acquire and process visual versus verbal information.
-if the learner is not presented with the preferred mode of information, the word understanding can be less.
Results of experiment:
-learning of the translation of the German words is better when learners can select two modes (verbal and visual) then one mode alone, which is better than selection of none.
-recall of the translations of German words is better when preferred mode is used to retrieve them
Conclusion:
-students learn more effectively when they can select visual and verbal modes than when they have access to only one mode or neither.
-visualizers benefit from visual modes of presented material more than do verbalizers,
-verbalizers benefit more from verbal modes of presented material than do visualizers.
Attribute X Treatment interaction (ATI) between learning preferences and type of information:
-visualizers performed better on visual and verbal annotations than only for verbal annotations and verbalizers performed well on both types of propositions.
The study:
-suggests that learners should have options for selecting and processing material presented in both visual and verbal modes.
-provides evidence for Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning
-suggests concerns for different learning preferences of individuals.
Friday, March 18, 2011
Prior Knowledge Principle in Multimedia Learning
Mayer, R.E. (Ed.) (2005). Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge. [Chapter 21]
Prior knowledge principle: concerns integrating instructional information in working memory with already existing information in long term memory.
Instructional designers should consider this principle and design according to the change in levels of learners.
multimedia principle: words and picture rather than words alone or picture alone.
modality principle: uses animation and narration, rather than animation and text.
contiguity principle: words and visual images are synchronized in time (or continuous in space).
signalling principle: learner's attention is directed to appropriate elements by highlighting or flashing.
interactivity principle: learner can control the presentation by clicking, etc
worked-out examples principle: learners learn with examples that guide the learner, rather than exploring with no guidance.
Kalyuga gives an example of an instruction that uses all these principles. And compares this example with an instruction that has an alternative format, which doesn't have auditory or visual text, but only has a diagram.
Novice learners learned better from the former instruction but as they get to know the domain better, latter instructions became more effective. As levels of learners knowledge in a domain changed, relative effectiveness of different instructional formats reversed. This explains the expertise reversal effect.
Prior Research
Prior knowledge principle is an example of Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (ATI) between learner characteristics and instructional treatments.
Many research done by Mayer (1999, 2001), Mayer and Gallini (1990), Mayer et al. (1995), Ollerenshaw et al. (1997) that confirmed the prior knowledge principle.
Hegarty et al. (1999) didn't get a benefits from narration and animation because the student's prior knowledge was not taken into account.
Pollock et al. (2002) claimed that isolated-interacting elements only benefited low knowledge learners. (for complex systems are high in element interactivity and this causes more elements in working memory, but in this experiment, learners saw brief headings of sequential steps as isolated elements with no details.)
Kalyuga et al. (1998, 2000, 2001) found the effect of levels of expertise of a learner on effectiveness of different multimedia formats.
Kalyuga et al. (1998) text and diagram was better for low knowledge learners, and only diagram was better for high knowledge learners.
Kalyuga et al. (2000) found that instructional formats that include modality principle are effective for low knowledge learners but these instructions become redundant for high knowledge learners.
Kalyuga et al. (2001) found that worked-out example principle often more effective but as the learners become more experiences in the domain, the effect disappears.
Limitations on Research
Research on prior knowledge is an extension of ATI approach.
A major limitation is the limited number of studies of new techniques for better instructional presentations considering learner's level of knowledge.
Prior Knowledge Principle in Cognitive Theory
-an important factor of individual differences.
-schematic knowledge held in long term memory is most important for learning.
-schemas kept in long term memory are brought into working memory while learning new instructions. With these schemas, high-knowledge learners can treat many elements of related information as a single element. This reduces the cognitive load.
-redundant information and hence cognitive overload occurs when there is a cognitive conflict between available and presented cognitive.: expertise effect
-detailed information interfere with retrieval of schemas
Prior Knowledge Principle and Instructional Design
-instructions should be designed according to the levels of learners expertise.
-should be done like scaffolding: providing novice learners with information but gradually reducing support as levels of expertise increase.
Prior knowledge principle: concerns integrating instructional information in working memory with already existing information in long term memory.
Instructional designers should consider this principle and design according to the change in levels of learners.
multimedia principle: words and picture rather than words alone or picture alone.
modality principle: uses animation and narration, rather than animation and text.
contiguity principle: words and visual images are synchronized in time (or continuous in space).
signalling principle: learner's attention is directed to appropriate elements by highlighting or flashing.
interactivity principle: learner can control the presentation by clicking, etc
worked-out examples principle: learners learn with examples that guide the learner, rather than exploring with no guidance.
Kalyuga gives an example of an instruction that uses all these principles. And compares this example with an instruction that has an alternative format, which doesn't have auditory or visual text, but only has a diagram.
Novice learners learned better from the former instruction but as they get to know the domain better, latter instructions became more effective. As levels of learners knowledge in a domain changed, relative effectiveness of different instructional formats reversed. This explains the expertise reversal effect.
Prior Research
Prior knowledge principle is an example of Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (ATI) between learner characteristics and instructional treatments.
Many research done by Mayer (1999, 2001), Mayer and Gallini (1990), Mayer et al. (1995), Ollerenshaw et al. (1997) that confirmed the prior knowledge principle.
Hegarty et al. (1999) didn't get a benefits from narration and animation because the student's prior knowledge was not taken into account.
Pollock et al. (2002) claimed that isolated-interacting elements only benefited low knowledge learners. (for complex systems are high in element interactivity and this causes more elements in working memory, but in this experiment, learners saw brief headings of sequential steps as isolated elements with no details.)
Kalyuga et al. (1998, 2000, 2001) found the effect of levels of expertise of a learner on effectiveness of different multimedia formats.
Kalyuga et al. (1998) text and diagram was better for low knowledge learners, and only diagram was better for high knowledge learners.
Kalyuga et al. (2000) found that instructional formats that include modality principle are effective for low knowledge learners but these instructions become redundant for high knowledge learners.
Kalyuga et al. (2001) found that worked-out example principle often more effective but as the learners become more experiences in the domain, the effect disappears.
Limitations on Research
Research on prior knowledge is an extension of ATI approach.
A major limitation is the limited number of studies of new techniques for better instructional presentations considering learner's level of knowledge.
Prior Knowledge Principle in Cognitive Theory
-an important factor of individual differences.
-schematic knowledge held in long term memory is most important for learning.
-schemas kept in long term memory are brought into working memory while learning new instructions. With these schemas, high-knowledge learners can treat many elements of related information as a single element. This reduces the cognitive load.
-redundant information and hence cognitive overload occurs when there is a cognitive conflict between available and presented cognitive.: expertise effect
-detailed information interfere with retrieval of schemas
Prior Knowledge Principle and Instructional Design
-instructions should be designed according to the levels of learners expertise.
-should be done like scaffolding: providing novice learners with information but gradually reducing support as levels of expertise increase.
Thursday, March 17, 2011
Direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning
Brunken, R., Plass, J.L., & Leutner, D. (2003). Direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38, 53-61.
Learner’s prior knowledge determines the level of cognitive load that individual experiences.
Paper describes more reliable and valid approach for measuring the cognitive load: dual-task approach.
Three types of cognitive load:
1-Intrinsic: caused by the structure and complexity of the material, depends on component interactivity (amount of informational units the learner has to keep in working memory to understand the information)
2-Extraneous: caused by the format the information is presented
3-Germane load: caused by learners’ efforts to process and comprehend the material
Instructional strategies to reduce extraneous load and induce germane load:
worked examples, goal-free activities, strategies of imaging
activities based on completion effect, modality effect, and redundancy effect
(Total cognitive load ) - (Processing capacity of visual and auditory WM) = free cognitive resources
- if approaches zero, it causes high cognitive load on the learner
Dual-coding assumption: verbal and pictorial material processed and mentally represented in separate but interconnected systems. ( from Paivio’s dual coding theory)
Dual-channel assumption: visual and auditory information are processed in different systems (from visuospatial and phonological subsystems in Baddeley’s working memory)
- Learner actively select visual and verbal information and integrate their representations with prior knowledge by building referential connections.
Modality effect: information given in both visual and auditory is better than when it is given only visually.
Measurement:
indirect subjective measures: posttreatment questionnaire
direct subjective measures: rating of the difficulty of the material
indirect objective measures: performance outcome measures, comparing two it more different variants of multimedia instructions
- analysis of behavioral patterns or physiological conditions and functions
e.g. learner’s time-on-task , eye tracking, heart rate, pupil dilation
direct objective measures: neuroimaging techniques to measure brain activation during task execution
- tasks as word memorization, sentence comprehension or visual rotations
dual-task-paradigm: (a direct objective measure)learner has to perform two tasks simultaneously and both tasks require same cognitive resources in verbal and visual working memory.
-a secondary task is added to a primary task:
-learner’s performance in the secondary task can be a measure for cognitive load.
Benefits:
1- both tasks are at the same time so the measure can be at the very point in time when the load is induced
2- there are different secondary tasks like perception, preprocessing or information integratio which make it possible to identify where the cognitive load is imposed
2- different design variants for the same learner makes it independent from the individual differences
Issues:
1- secondary task requires the same cognitive resource as primary task
2- measure for the secondary task has to be reliable and valid.
3- secondary task has to be simple
4- secondary task has to be able to consume free cognitive capacity
In the paper, the experience is done by comparing two dual task conditions, and the reaction times were faster for audiovisual primary tasks than the visual only primary task condition
Issues with dual task approach:
1- depends on the sensory modality, require the use of auditory secondary tasks
2- secondary task, even though it is very simple, it can still affect the learning outcomes of the primary effect
3- need to know the prior knowledge of the learner
4- split attention and modality effect can be caused by the different instructional designs as well as the differences in attentional processing.
Learner’s prior knowledge determines the level of cognitive load that individual experiences.
Paper describes more reliable and valid approach for measuring the cognitive load: dual-task approach.
Three types of cognitive load:
1-Intrinsic: caused by the structure and complexity of the material, depends on component interactivity (amount of informational units the learner has to keep in working memory to understand the information)
2-Extraneous: caused by the format the information is presented
3-Germane load: caused by learners’ efforts to process and comprehend the material
Instructional strategies to reduce extraneous load and induce germane load:
worked examples, goal-free activities, strategies of imaging
activities based on completion effect, modality effect, and redundancy effect
(Total cognitive load ) - (Processing capacity of visual and auditory WM) = free cognitive resources
- if approaches zero, it causes high cognitive load on the learner
Dual-coding assumption: verbal and pictorial material processed and mentally represented in separate but interconnected systems. ( from Paivio’s dual coding theory)
Dual-channel assumption: visual and auditory information are processed in different systems (from visuospatial and phonological subsystems in Baddeley’s working memory)
- Learner actively select visual and verbal information and integrate their representations with prior knowledge by building referential connections.
Modality effect: information given in both visual and auditory is better than when it is given only visually.
Measurement:
indirect subjective measures: posttreatment questionnaire
direct subjective measures: rating of the difficulty of the material
indirect objective measures: performance outcome measures, comparing two it more different variants of multimedia instructions
- analysis of behavioral patterns or physiological conditions and functions
e.g. learner’s time-on-task , eye tracking, heart rate, pupil dilation
direct objective measures: neuroimaging techniques to measure brain activation during task execution
- tasks as word memorization, sentence comprehension or visual rotations
dual-task-paradigm: (a direct objective measure)learner has to perform two tasks simultaneously and both tasks require same cognitive resources in verbal and visual working memory.
-a secondary task is added to a primary task:
-learner’s performance in the secondary task can be a measure for cognitive load.
Benefits:
1- both tasks are at the same time so the measure can be at the very point in time when the load is induced
2- there are different secondary tasks like perception, preprocessing or information integratio which make it possible to identify where the cognitive load is imposed
2- different design variants for the same learner makes it independent from the individual differences
Issues:
1- secondary task requires the same cognitive resource as primary task
2- measure for the secondary task has to be reliable and valid.
3- secondary task has to be simple
4- secondary task has to be able to consume free cognitive capacity
In the paper, the experience is done by comparing two dual task conditions, and the reaction times were faster for audiovisual primary tasks than the visual only primary task condition
Issues with dual task approach:
1- depends on the sensory modality, require the use of auditory secondary tasks
2- secondary task, even though it is very simple, it can still affect the learning outcomes of the primary effect
3- need to know the prior knowledge of the learner
4- split attention and modality effect can be caused by the different instructional designs as well as the differences in attentional processing.
Tuesday, March 15, 2011
Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology
Cronbach, L. J. (1975). Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 30(2), 116-127
Aptitude X Treatment Interactions (ATIs)
Typical ATI study is a two group experiment and a slope is formed by the measure of outcome and the score before treatment of two groups. The slopes of two treatments differ and that is evidence of ATI.
College success’ relation to Achievement via Independence (Ai) and to Achievement via Conformance (Ac)
Student scores high on AI if he says “I do good work when I can set tasks for myself”
Outcomes were indeed better when the student’s style of learning matched the instructor’s press
Majasan (1972) suspected that instructor communicates better to students who has similar beliefs with his.
He develops a bipolar scale: with humanistic (H) and behavioristic (B)
Humanistic: specific principles that apply to unique individuals.
the primary concern should be subjective experiences underlying people’s actions
Behavioristic: general principles that apply to all individuals.
the primary concern should be people’s observable actions capable of objective interpretation
- constructively motivated student is at his best when instructor challenges him and leaves him with his own thoughts and projects.
- defensive student tends to profit when the instructorlays out the work in detail
Snow and Cronbach: high spatial ability is successful when the instruction has diagrams and minimizes words, and when instructions are complex diagrams become very helpful for mentally understanding.
Aptitude X Treatment Interactions (ATIs)
Typical ATI study is a two group experiment and a slope is formed by the measure of outcome and the score before treatment of two groups. The slopes of two treatments differ and that is evidence of ATI.
College success’ relation to Achievement via Independence (Ai) and to Achievement via Conformance (Ac)
Student scores high on AI if he says “I do good work when I can set tasks for myself”
Outcomes were indeed better when the student’s style of learning matched the instructor’s press
Majasan (1972) suspected that instructor communicates better to students who has similar beliefs with his.
He develops a bipolar scale: with humanistic (H) and behavioristic (B)
Humanistic: specific principles that apply to unique individuals.
the primary concern should be subjective experiences underlying people’s actions
Behavioristic: general principles that apply to all individuals.
the primary concern should be people’s observable actions capable of objective interpretation
- constructively motivated student is at his best when instructor challenges him and leaves him with his own thoughts and projects.
- defensive student tends to profit when the instructorlays out the work in detail
Snow and Cronbach: high spatial ability is successful when the instruction has diagrams and minimizes words, and when instructions are complex diagrams become very helpful for mentally understanding.
Thursday, March 10, 2011
Learning Styles
Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence.Psychological Science in the Public Interst, 9(3), 10-119.
Learners have different styles of learning, e.g. some learn by visual material and some learn better with verbal, and these difference in style should be considered for instructions.
Student's studying preference is not the same thing as his/her learning styles, and instructions cannot be based on it.
Learning style hypothesis: Individualizing instruction to the learner's style can result in better learning outcomes for that learner.
Learning style's meshing hypothesis: the claim that presentation should mesh with learner's style; instruction matches the learner's style
Learners have different styles of learning, e.g. some learn by visual material and some learn better with verbal, and these difference in style should be considered for instructions.
Student's studying preference is not the same thing as his/her learning styles, and instructions cannot be based on it.
Learning style hypothesis: Individualizing instruction to the learner's style can result in better learning outcomes for that learner.
Learning style's meshing hypothesis: the claim that presentation should mesh with learner's style; instruction matches the learner's style
Tuesday, March 8, 2011
Individual Differences and Cognitive Load Theory.
Plass, J.L. & Kalyuga, S., & Leutner, D. (2010). Individual Differences and Cognitive Load Theory. In J. L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brunken (Eds.), Cognitive Load Theory, ch. 4. New York: Cambridge
Aptitude treatment interactions: When different instructional treatment condiitions result in different learning outcomes depending on student aptitudes.
Individual differences by:
- information gathering: learning styles, learning preferences, personality types
- information processing: cognitive controls, cognitive abilities, intelligence and prior knowledge
- regulation of processing: motivation, metacognition/self-regulation
Expertise reversal effect (prior knowledge):
prior knowledge is one of the most important effects on learner's cognitive loa during learning
According to CLT(Cognitive Load Theory), load in working memory depends on the schemas acquired before.
Difference between an expert and novice learner's cognitive load during learning is due to the schemas acquired by the experts.
Instructions like texts with diagrams, worked examples, narration instead of written text, become be unnecessary for the experts, and can result in increase in cognitive load.
expertise reversal effect occurs when instructions effective for novices become ineffective for experts due to redundant information.
split attention effect took place only for novice learners.
Instructions are more effective for high level knowledge learners when presented as:
diagram alone instead of diagram-text,
single modality presentation of text and graphics instead of dual modality,
problem solving instead of worked example instruction,
exploratory learning instead of worked example instructions
Spatial abilities
spatial relations: ability to mentally rotate objects
spatial orientation: ability to imagine how visual images might look from different perspectives
visualization: ability to manipulate visual patterns, and identify mental images
-Mayer (1994, 1995) found that temporal contiguity effect (advantages of concurrent presentation of text and animations over successive presentation) was strong for high-spatial ability with low prior knowledge students.
-high-spatial ability performs better learning when given instructions with high intrinsic load
Self-Regulation
process of monitoring and regulating one's learning
high cognitive load can result in failure for self-regulation
dependent on prior knowledge: experts show better self-regulation strategies while novices can't due to high intrinsic load
becomes extraneous load: but when scaffolds (by a tutor) and goals are well defined this can be reduced
Using above knowledge in designing instructional environments: learner adapted instructional systems:
1) instructions can differ in formats for different levels of learners
2) instructions can be presented in different ways to the same individual at different stages of learning as s/he becomes more knowledgable
Rapid diagnostic methods:
1- The first method: learners require to indicate their first step for a solution; different first steps for different levels of expertise
2- Rapid verification method: learners are given possible (correct or incorrect) series of steps for a solution, and require to rapidly choose among these steps.
Aptitude treatment interactions: When different instructional treatment condiitions result in different learning outcomes depending on student aptitudes.
Individual differences by:
- information gathering: learning styles, learning preferences, personality types
- information processing: cognitive controls, cognitive abilities, intelligence and prior knowledge
- regulation of processing: motivation, metacognition/self-regulation
Expertise reversal effect (prior knowledge):
prior knowledge is one of the most important effects on learner's cognitive loa during learning
According to CLT(Cognitive Load Theory), load in working memory depends on the schemas acquired before.
Difference between an expert and novice learner's cognitive load during learning is due to the schemas acquired by the experts.
Instructions like texts with diagrams, worked examples, narration instead of written text, become be unnecessary for the experts, and can result in increase in cognitive load.
expertise reversal effect occurs when instructions effective for novices become ineffective for experts due to redundant information.
split attention effect took place only for novice learners.
Instructions are more effective for high level knowledge learners when presented as:
diagram alone instead of diagram-text,
single modality presentation of text and graphics instead of dual modality,
problem solving instead of worked example instruction,
exploratory learning instead of worked example instructions
Spatial abilities
spatial relations: ability to mentally rotate objects
spatial orientation: ability to imagine how visual images might look from different perspectives
visualization: ability to manipulate visual patterns, and identify mental images
-Mayer (1994, 1995) found that temporal contiguity effect (advantages of concurrent presentation of text and animations over successive presentation) was strong for high-spatial ability with low prior knowledge students.
-high-spatial ability performs better learning when given instructions with high intrinsic load
Self-Regulation
process of monitoring and regulating one's learning
high cognitive load can result in failure for self-regulation
dependent on prior knowledge: experts show better self-regulation strategies while novices can't due to high intrinsic load
becomes extraneous load: but when scaffolds (by a tutor) and goals are well defined this can be reduced
Using above knowledge in designing instructional environments: learner adapted instructional systems:
1) instructions can differ in formats for different levels of learners
2) instructions can be presented in different ways to the same individual at different stages of learning as s/he becomes more knowledgable
Rapid diagnostic methods:
1- The first method: learners require to indicate their first step for a solution; different first steps for different levels of expertise
2- Rapid verification method: learners are given possible (correct or incorrect) series of steps for a solution, and require to rapidly choose among these steps.
Sunday, March 6, 2011
Schema Acquisition and Sources of Cognitive Load
Kalyuga, S. (2010). Schema Acquisition and Sources of Cognitive Load. In J.L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brünken (Eds.), Cognitive Load Theory, ch. 3. New York: Cambridge.
Schemas represent knowledge as patterns of relationship between elements
schema: chunk of information
novice - expert difference: experts have largely interconnected set of domain specific schematic knowledge structures. These structures become guidance during high level cognitive processing. Without this guidance learners have to go through random search which are cognitively inefficient, time consuming and causes heavy load on working memory which would interfere with construction of schemas
- new information is encoded in terms of existing schemas
- preexisting schemas resist change for example schemas acquired during everyday experiences may reject to comprehend scientific information
- instructional methods should tune up to student's existing schemas in order to reduce the cognitive load.
goal of learning: acquisition and automation of schematic knowledge structures in long term memory
direct initial instruction principle: direct instructional explanations and guidance is like schema base executive for a novice learner (who doesn't have schemas related to the concept).
Problem solving or discovery learning methods are inefficient executive that results in extraneous cognitive load.
expertise principle: ensures that at each stage of instruction, learner's level of expertise is taken into account to reduce the extraneous cognitive load. For example, by giving appropriate guidance and eliminating redundant instruction for an intermediate learner.
small step size of knowledge change principle: if there is no schema based on prior knowledge, and the instructions are too far away from learner's level, too many new elements will be introduced. And too many new interacting elements will cause high intrinsic load, which will become extraneous load. To reduce this, the instructions can be given in small step sizes with manageable load within each step. Too many new elements cannot be encoded as small chunks, but instead can be given as limited step sizes increments of knowledge change, not a rapid alteration.
Schemas represent knowledge as patterns of relationship between elements
schema: chunk of information
novice - expert difference: experts have largely interconnected set of domain specific schematic knowledge structures. These structures become guidance during high level cognitive processing. Without this guidance learners have to go through random search which are cognitively inefficient, time consuming and causes heavy load on working memory which would interfere with construction of schemas
- new information is encoded in terms of existing schemas
- preexisting schemas resist change for example schemas acquired during everyday experiences may reject to comprehend scientific information
- instructional methods should tune up to student's existing schemas in order to reduce the cognitive load.
goal of learning: acquisition and automation of schematic knowledge structures in long term memory
direct initial instruction principle: direct instructional explanations and guidance is like schema base executive for a novice learner (who doesn't have schemas related to the concept).
Problem solving or discovery learning methods are inefficient executive that results in extraneous cognitive load.
expertise principle: ensures that at each stage of instruction, learner's level of expertise is taken into account to reduce the extraneous cognitive load. For example, by giving appropriate guidance and eliminating redundant instruction for an intermediate learner.
small step size of knowledge change principle: if there is no schema based on prior knowledge, and the instructions are too far away from learner's level, too many new elements will be introduced. And too many new interacting elements will cause high intrinsic load, which will become extraneous load. To reduce this, the instructions can be given in small step sizes with manageable load within each step. Too many new elements cannot be encoded as small chunks, but instead can be given as limited step sizes increments of knowledge change, not a rapid alteration.
Saturday, March 5, 2011
Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work
Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R.E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86
Two opposite thoughts:
1- minimal or no guidance, learners need to construct their own knowledge by experience, discovery learning
2- direct instructional guidance, that fully explains the concepts and procedures
This paper argues that the minimal guidance during instruction is ineffective.
Minimally guided approach = problem based learning, discovery learning, inquiry learning, experiential learning, constructivist learning
Two main assumptions for instructions with minimal guidance:
1- better when students are challenged to solve authentic problems, and when they construct their own knowledge
2- knowledge can best be acquired through experience based on the procedures
Wickens (1992) suggests that large amounts of guidance can result in better performance during practice, but too much guidance is not good for later performance.
Human cognitive architecture: Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) sensory memory, working memory and long term memory is taken as base.
- The instructional consequences should alter the long term memory, which results in learning.
Working memory is the cognitive structure in which conscious processing occurs.
- limited in duration and capacity
Problem solving, inquiry based learning, caused heavy load on working memory
Problem-based search causes high cognitive load in working memory
Constructivism and guidance: knowledge is constructed by learners
no evidence that less information can help learners enhance their ability to construct
discovery learning --> experiential learning --> problem-based learning --> inquiry learning--> constructivist instructional techniques
Some studies noted that classrooms with pure discover methods and minimal feedback causes students become frustrated and lost, and their confusion can lead to misconception.
Cognitive load theory suggests that no guidance in exploring a complex environment causes heavy cognitive load in working memory, which interferes with learning.
-for novice learners who do not have the schemas related to the new information
-for expert learners, there is no negative effect of free exploration
Worked examples: an example of strongly guided instruction
worked example effect occurs when learners cannot solve test problems while others perform better on worked examples.
-novice learners studying worked examples are much better than the ones study with discovery or constructing a solution to a problem.
-reduces working memory load because search is reduced
-directs attention to learning the essential relations between problem solving moves
problem-solving search: ineffective for altering long term memory because it is function is to find a problem to a solution.
-results in no learning
-overload for working memory
-requires working memory resources that are not related to learning
process worksheet: rules of thumb. Students can:
-consult while they are working on learning tasks
-note their intermediate results of problem solving process
-create their own feedback
experiential learning: 1-carrying out an action, discovering the effect of that action
2- understand the effects of the same action in same circumstance
3- understanding the general principle of the instance
individual differences: moderate the impact of the instruction
ATI (aptitude-treatment interaction) studies: examine effects of different instructional methods on students’ aptitude and traits
Kyllonen and Lajoie (2003) found that strong treatments benefited less able learners and vice versa.
Cronbach and Snow (1977) described strong treatments as highly structures instructional presentations (provides explicit organizations of information and learning) and weaker treatments as relatively unstructured (provides less learning support).
*discovery learning is successful when students have prerequisite knowledge and have some prior structured experiences.
Two opposite thoughts:
1- minimal or no guidance, learners need to construct their own knowledge by experience, discovery learning
2- direct instructional guidance, that fully explains the concepts and procedures
This paper argues that the minimal guidance during instruction is ineffective.
Minimally guided approach = problem based learning, discovery learning, inquiry learning, experiential learning, constructivist learning
Two main assumptions for instructions with minimal guidance:
1- better when students are challenged to solve authentic problems, and when they construct their own knowledge
2- knowledge can best be acquired through experience based on the procedures
Wickens (1992) suggests that large amounts of guidance can result in better performance during practice, but too much guidance is not good for later performance.
Human cognitive architecture: Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) sensory memory, working memory and long term memory is taken as base.
- The instructional consequences should alter the long term memory, which results in learning.
Working memory is the cognitive structure in which conscious processing occurs.
- limited in duration and capacity
Problem solving, inquiry based learning, caused heavy load on working memory
Problem-based search causes high cognitive load in working memory
Constructivism and guidance: knowledge is constructed by learners
no evidence that less information can help learners enhance their ability to construct
discovery learning --> experiential learning --> problem-based learning --> inquiry learning--> constructivist instructional techniques
Some studies noted that classrooms with pure discover methods and minimal feedback causes students become frustrated and lost, and their confusion can lead to misconception.
Cognitive load theory suggests that no guidance in exploring a complex environment causes heavy cognitive load in working memory, which interferes with learning.
-for novice learners who do not have the schemas related to the new information
-for expert learners, there is no negative effect of free exploration
Worked examples: an example of strongly guided instruction
worked example effect occurs when learners cannot solve test problems while others perform better on worked examples.
-novice learners studying worked examples are much better than the ones study with discovery or constructing a solution to a problem.
-reduces working memory load because search is reduced
-directs attention to learning the essential relations between problem solving moves
problem-solving search: ineffective for altering long term memory because it is function is to find a problem to a solution.
-results in no learning
-overload for working memory
-requires working memory resources that are not related to learning
process worksheet: rules of thumb. Students can:
-consult while they are working on learning tasks
-note their intermediate results of problem solving process
-create their own feedback
experiential learning: 1-carrying out an action, discovering the effect of that action
2- understand the effects of the same action in same circumstance
3- understanding the general principle of the instance
individual differences: moderate the impact of the instruction
ATI (aptitude-treatment interaction) studies: examine effects of different instructional methods on students’ aptitude and traits
Kyllonen and Lajoie (2003) found that strong treatments benefited less able learners and vice versa.
Cronbach and Snow (1977) described strong treatments as highly structures instructional presentations (provides explicit organizations of information and learning) and weaker treatments as relatively unstructured (provides less learning support).
*discovery learning is successful when students have prerequisite knowledge and have some prior structured experiences.
Wednesday, March 2, 2011
The Primary Schemas- ROP Ch 10
Rules of Play is based on the idea of game design schemas:
What is schema?: building blocks of rules, play and culture in games;
Organizer of knowledge
Way mind acquires and organizes knowledge
-schema qualities:
- has variables
-can embed
-represent knowledge at many levels of abstraction
-represent knowledge rather than definitions
Rules are formal schemas: 1- in the sense of inner form of the games
2- in the sense if formalization of knowledge about the game
Play is experiential schema: directly focused on the actual experience
Culture is contextual schema: focus on the cultural dimensions of games, design and play.
What is schema?: building blocks of rules, play and culture in games;
Organizer of knowledge
Way mind acquires and organizes knowledge
-schema qualities:
- has variables
-can embed
-represent knowledge at many levels of abstraction
-represent knowledge rather than definitions
Rules are formal schemas: 1- in the sense of inner form of the games
2- in the sense if formalization of knowledge about the game
Play is experiential schema: directly focused on the actual experience
Culture is contextual schema: focus on the cultural dimensions of games, design and play.
The Magic Circle - ROP Ch 9
ROP - The Magic Circle
What does it mean to enter the system of a game?
Everygame has a start and an end, it exists within a frame: that communicates the players that a game is being played, and that the space of the play is separate in some way from that of the real world.
This frame is safety according to Chris Crawford's desciption of game. It is a relationship between the artificial world of the game and the real life.
This frame is the Magic Circle, the boundary of the game space, and within this boundary the rules of the game play out and have authority.
Is game world closed(self contained world inside) or opened(permitting interchange between the game and the world beyond its frame)?
The answer depends on the way the games are framed:
- if the games are considered as rules, then the game is closed, no interaction with anything from outside of the game's frame.
- if the games are considered as play, then the players get involved, so does their social relationships, their likes and dislikes, hence the game is opened.
However, we can also focus on the play behaviours that are intrinsic to the game and the game becomes closed in this case.
- if the games are considered as culture, then the game is extremely open, because the focus is on the way that the game exchanges meaning with culture at large.
Lusory Attitude: According to Bernard Suit, it is to decide to play a game. It is a shared attitude toward the act of game playing, an openness to the possibility of taking such indirect means to the accomplish a goal
Everygame has a start and an end, it exists within a frame: that communicates the players that a game is being played, and that the space of the play is separate in some way from that of the real world.
This frame is safety according to Chris Crawford's desciption of game. It is a relationship between the artificial world of the game and the real life.
This frame is the Magic Circle, the boundary of the game space, and within this boundary the rules of the game play out and have authority.
Is game world closed(self contained world inside) or opened(permitting interchange between the game and the world beyond its frame)?
The answer depends on the way the games are framed:
- if the games are considered as rules, then the game is closed, no interaction with anything from outside of the game's frame.
- if the games are considered as play, then the players get involved, so does their social relationships, their likes and dislikes, hence the game is opened.
However, we can also focus on the play behaviours that are intrinsic to the game and the game becomes closed in this case.
- if the games are considered as culture, then the game is extremely open, because the focus is on the way that the game exchanges meaning with culture at large.
Lusory Attitude: According to Bernard Suit, it is to decide to play a game. It is a shared attitude toward the act of game playing, an openness to the possibility of taking such indirect means to the accomplish a goal
Defining Digital Games - ROP Ch 8
ROP - Defining Digital Games
There are four traits of digital games. (These are also present in the non-digital games.)
1- immediate but narrow interactivity, medium is limited;
2- storing and manipulating data(text, image, 3D);
3 - automate the procedure w/o direct input from the player, Black Box Syndrome: not being able to change the rules, not being able to have a lot of info about the game;
4- networked communication: communication between players.
1- immediate but narrow interactivity, medium is limited;
2- storing and manipulating data(text, image, 3D);
3 - automate the procedure w/o direct input from the player, Black Box Syndrome: not being able to change the rules, not being able to have a lot of info about the game;
4- networked communication: communication between players.
Defining Games - ROP Ch 7
ROP - Defining Games
Two ways to describe the relationship between play and games:
- Games as a subset of play : This way of describing it is according to the forms they take in world.
- Play as a subset of games : This one is a more conceptual approach that situates play and games within the field of game design.
- Games as a subset of play : This way of describing it is according to the forms they take in world.
- Play as a subset of games : This one is a more conceptual approach that situates play and games within the field of game design.
What is a game? (definitions by 8 different people) :
David Parlett => Informal(play) vs. Formal(game) definition.
Clark C. Abt => Defines with 4 key terms: Activity, Decision-maker, Objectives(Goals), Limiting context(Rules)
Johann Huizingo => Doesn't differentiate between game and play.
Roger Caillois => If you are forced into a game that you don't want to play, is that still a game? Bernard Suits => Defines act of playing a game. Lusolry Attitude: peculiar state of mind of game players. Accepting rules create meaning for games.
Chris Crawford => First one that calls a game a system because he is looking at it from a digital game point of view.
Greg Costikyan => Includes art to the definition.
Elliot Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith => Exercise of a voluntary control systems, in which there is contest between powers, confined by rules in order to produce a disequilibrial outcome.
David Parlett => Informal(play) vs. Formal(game) definition.
Clark C. Abt => Defines with 4 key terms: Activity, Decision-maker, Objectives(Goals), Limiting context(Rules)
Johann Huizingo => Doesn't differentiate between game and play.
Roger Caillois => If you are forced into a game that you don't want to play, is that still a game? Bernard Suits => Defines act of playing a game. Lusolry Attitude: peculiar state of mind of game players. Accepting rules create meaning for games.
Chris Crawford => First one that calls a game a system because he is looking at it from a digital game point of view.
Greg Costikyan => Includes art to the definition.
Elliot Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith => Exercise of a voluntary control systems, in which there is contest between powers, confined by rules in order to produce a disequilibrial outcome.
Comparison: Only Greg Costikyan and Chris Crawford are operating from within the field of game design. Only Costikyan doesn't include rules as a key component. Rules and goals are the most agreed upon key elements.
Author's definition (almost like Avedon and Smith's) :
- a system;
- players engage in an artificial conflict;
- defined by rules; results in a quantifiable outcome.
- a system;
- players engage in an artificial conflict;
- defined by rules; results in a quantifiable outcome.
All puzzles are games. Multiplayer RPGs do not clearly possess a quantifiable outcome.
Interactivity - ROP Ch 6
ROP Chapter 6: Interactivity
Interactivity is linked to concepts of design, system and meaningful play
Four modes of interactivity:
1- 1- Cognitive interactivity, interpretive participation
2- 2- Functional interactivity, utilitarian participation
3- 3- Explicit interactivity, participation with designed choices and procedures
4- 4- Beyond the object interactivity or cultural participation
These have overlapping parts and occur simultaneously in any design system
Choices: interactive content offers choices, and these can be
- micro-choices: moment-to-moment choices a player is confronted with
- macro-choices: the way micro-choices join together like a chain to form a larger trajectory of experience
Meaning in a game (meaning by player interaction) emerges by action > outcome unit (the molecule out of which larger interactive structures are built).
To analyze action > outcome unit, five stages help construct a choice in a game:
1- 1- What happened before the player was given choice?
2- 2- How is the possibility of choice conveyed to the player?
3- 3- How did the player make the choice?
4- 4- What is the result of a choice? How will it affect future choices?
5- 5- How is the result of the choice conveyed to the player
Internal event: in which the systems of the game processes and receives the choice
External event: in which the choice is represented to the player
Space of possibility: the space of all possible actions and meanings that can emerge in the course of the game.
Systems - ROP Ch 5
ROP - Systems
Systems are set of parts that form a complex whole -> so games are also systems
Elements of systems:
Objects,
attributes (the characteristics of the system and its objects),
internal relationships (relations among the objects),
environment(the surroundings).
Framing Systems: formal, cultural and experiential exist
Open and Closed Systems:
Open system receives matter and energy from its environment e.g. formal and cultural systems are open systems. Experiential systems can be open systems.
Closed system has no interchange with its environment e.g experiential systems can be closed systems.
Systems are set of parts that form a complex whole -> so games are also systems
Elements of systems:
Objects,
attributes (the characteristics of the system and its objects),
internal relationships (relations among the objects),
environment(the surroundings).
Framing Systems: formal, cultural and experiential exist
Open and Closed Systems:
Open system receives matter and energy from its environment e.g. formal and cultural systems are open systems. Experiential systems can be open systems.
Closed system has no interchange with its environment e.g experiential systems can be closed systems.
Design - ROP Ch 4
ROP - Design
Design has many definitions but all of them share one thing: that it has “people” at its core.
Design has many definitions but all of them share one thing: that it has “people” at its core.
Definitions:
making sense of things
artificial
action
visual appearance
communication
reflective process
thought
transformation
Meaning of design by Salen and Zimmer:
designer: an individual designer or a design team
within a context: spaces, objects, narratives, and behaviours
participants: players
meaning: concept player explore
Design and meaning:
People try to attach a meaning to the things they are surrounded by, try to make sense of things. So game designers should take this into consideration, they should focus on meaning of things. They are designing systems of interaction whic are the meaningful actions of the game.
Semiotics: study of role of signs as part of life.
signs represent something other than itself.
e.g smell of smoke = fire
tallest piece in a Chess = King
Four concepts of semiotics:
1- Sign represents something other than itself: for games: The signs are used in games to denote action,outcome, and elements of the game world.
2- Signs are interpreted: for games: It is players who bring meaning to signs.
3- Meaning results when a sign is interpreted: for games: The signs are arbitrary but they gain meaning through a set of agree upon conventions.
4- Context shapes interpretation (for games): The interpretation depends on the situation the person is in.
The same way the structure can change the interpretation: a word can mean different things depending on the sentence it is used in.
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