Representation of stories forming schemata for encoding and retrieval
Tree structure with basic units and their connections is used for single and multiple-episode stories.
Terminal Nodes: STATE or EVENT
STATE: external: current condition of the world
internal: emotion or state of mind
EVENT: external: actions of characters and changes of state in the world
internal: thought, plans and perceptions
Connections Between Nodes:
three types of relationship:
1. AND: connects two nodes when notions of simultaneous activity or temporally overlapping states isbeing expressed
2. THEN: if two noes are temporarily ordered
3. CAUSE: when first nodes provides a reason for the occurrence of the second
Regular expressions for the story according to Mandler and Johnson:
STATE* -> STATE((AND STATE*))
EVENT* ->EVENT (({AND | THEN | CAUSE} EVENT)^n)((AND STATE)^n)
Basic Nodes:
can appear only in certain places in tree and more constraints:
rewrite rule: STORY-> SETTING AND EVENT SYTRUCTURE
Episodes:
EVENT STRUCTURE -> EPISODE ((THEN EPISODE)^n)
Episodes are causally connected by one of the three types:
1. Ending-embedding: development of one episode may cause an ending which itself consists of a new episode - an ending may be rewritten as an episode
2. Beginning-embedding: when an entire episode forms a beginning to next episode
3. Outcome-embedding: each outcome induces the protagonist to form a subgoal in the service of the larger goal represented in the higher level episode.
Subepisodes: continue the episodic structure from the subdivided node
Transformational Rules: Two types of transformational rules: governing deletions and reordering of nodes
deletions: 1- any kind of reaction to be omitted from the surface structure without destroying the well-formedness of the story
2- beginning-deletion, when a character who has already appeared in the first episode becomes a protagonist of an ending-embedded episode
reordering: out of order structures: presenting ending of a story first, with events leading back to it as flashback.
IMPLICATIONS of STORY STRUCTURE FOR RECALL:
people use story schemata, based on ideal structures of simple stories, to guide encoding and retrieval
Encoding and retrieval involve selection and construction but they are not identical:
• more will be encoded the recalled
• effects of the story schemata will be more apparent during retrieval than during encoding
• importations of new material into recall which fill the structural requirements of a given node may be only loosely related to initial encoding process.
1 - Overall Accuracy and Extent of Recall
- more story conforms to an ideal structure, better it will be recalled.
a) A story with surface structure containing all the basic nodes of an ideal structure will be more accurately and extensively recalled than a story lacing one or more nodes
b) the more the sequence of sentences in the surface structure follows the sequence of an ideal structure the better the recall will be - function of three factor 1- how given sequence of propositions differ from the expected, in terms of deviations and distance of given propositions from their expected locations
2- whether sequential displacements are marked appropriately in the surface structure so correct underlying structure can be recovered
3- the extent to which a displacement interrupts the internal structure of basic node
2- Likelihood and Accuracy of Recall of Parts of a Story
basic node is the main unit of recall
a) Elaboration of nodes will be poorly recalled - including descriptive adjectives and adverbs of all sorts
b) Nodes which are optionally deletable will be less well recalled
c) Causally connected episodes will be better recalled than temporarily connected episodes
d) The recall of a given state or event will be a function of the type of node or episode in which it occurs.
3- Inversions of Sequence
Inversions in recall are function f violations in sequencing of propositions int he surface structure of a story
a) With ideal structure - ideal order, less inversions, will be recalled better - like (1a) - a displaced node will more likely to appear in the correct place in an ideal structure story
b) Sequence of basic nodes is invariant in recall, if the surface has ideal structure, temporal ordering of nodes will be respected in recall
4-Additions and Distortions
a) Addition if new material into recall will supply missing basic nodes, or basic nodes with non-retriavable content
b) Distortions in recall occur when ambiguity or violation of an ideal structure occurs in the surface structure
-Changes in schema from encoding to retrieval, Piaget and Ihelder (1973), a child encodes on the basis of his or her current concept of the content, and makes a reconstruction according to the level of comprehension operative at the time of the input. If asked to reproduce later, child uses the concept of the content as a retrieval cue but concept had changed.
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