Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2003). Return of the mental image: Are there really pictures in the brain? Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 113-118
the format of thinking: thinking about how something looks and thinking about what it means
picture theory: picture of mental images: a type of picture which has location and values in space
neuroscientists claim that there is a mental image which is projecting a two dimensional moving picture onto the surface of visual cortex
cortical images in vision vs cortical images in imagery
in vision: cortical images, caused by light on retina
imagery: mental images, caused by top down projection from higher cognitive structures
-mental images are spatial: objects in an image seem to be in some spatial relation relative to one another
Tuesday, May 31, 2011
Rescuing Play
Eisenberg, M. (2007). Rescuing play. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 16(1), 131-138.
Adults consider play as something they do when they are not productive or serious. This is also reflected on the children and the way they are raised
There are books that talk about the role of play in the early childhood development
The author talks about one of these books, All Work, which argues that technology has negative impacts on children. -computer activities solitary, physically impoverished, and relentlessly abstract
Adults consider play as something they do when they are not productive or serious. This is also reflected on the children and the way they are raised
There are books that talk about the role of play in the early childhood development
The author talks about one of these books, All Work, which argues that technology has negative impacts on children. -computer activities solitary, physically impoverished, and relentlessly abstract
Education of Man
From Froebel, F. W. A. (1887). The Education of Man (W. N. Hailmann, Trans.). New York: D.
Appleton and Company. (Original work published 1826).
Appleton and Company. (Original work published 1826).
play and speech are elements in which child lives
man is developed in plays of childhood
Boy
family life: true essence of humanity is individualized in father, mother and child
child tries to represent what he sees his parents do
when he was doing before for the sake of activity, now he is doing for the sake of result
he will help the parent, and parent should let him help
this is the age when everything seems easy, and he wants more adventures, e.g. climbing a tree
discovery age: his own power, his own material and his own space
now the play seeks representation, its aim lies now in a definite, conscious purpose
Froebel found the kindergarten, the social nursery of the child
-an ideal society if equals which the child may enter at the very moment when his social instincts enter consciousness
-he considers group works - building blocks, sand, etc
Toward a Theory of Instruction
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Notes on a theory of instruction. In Toward a theory of instruction, (p. 39 - 72). Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University.
Chapter 3
the nature of a theory of instruction :
-prescriptive: sets forth rules for achieving knowledge and skill
-normative: sets up criteria and states the conditions to meet them
Four major features:
1- should specify the experiences
2- must specify the ways in which a body of knowledge should be structured
optimal structure: set of propositions from which a larger body of knowledge generated
3- should specify the most effective sequences in which to present materials to be learned
4- should specify the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments in the process of learning and teaching
Predispositions: relation of instructor to the student
Structure and the form of knowledge:
-mode of representation, in which it is put
can be represented:
by a set of actions appropriate for achieving a certain result
by a set of summary images and graphics
by a set of symbolic or logical propositions
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Man: a course of study. Toward a theory of instruction, (p.73 - 101). Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University.
Chapter 4
Structure of the course: the content is man, his nature as species, forces that shaped and continue to shape his humanity
-explore five subjects: tool making, language, social organization, the management of man's prolonged childhood, and man's urge to explain his world
language: what is communication? - by contrasting the way humans and animals send and receive messages
social organization: to teach about society and that it is not fixed
- also concept of family, and kinship is presented
world view: all societies are created equal but they differ because of the tools they have
Form of the course: 1- talking to teacher
2- queries and contrasts
3- devices - stuff, materials for students
4- model exercises
5- documentaries
6- supplementary materials
The goal of the course was to
-give students respect for and confidence in powers of their own mind
-extend that respect and confidence to their power to think about human condition
-provide a set of workable models to simply analyze the nature of social world
-sense of respect for humanity as man of species
-leave the student with a sense of unfinished business of man's evolution
Chapter 3
the nature of a theory of instruction :
-prescriptive: sets forth rules for achieving knowledge and skill
-normative: sets up criteria and states the conditions to meet them
Four major features:
1- should specify the experiences
2- must specify the ways in which a body of knowledge should be structured
optimal structure: set of propositions from which a larger body of knowledge generated
3- should specify the most effective sequences in which to present materials to be learned
4- should specify the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments in the process of learning and teaching
Predispositions: relation of instructor to the student
Structure and the form of knowledge:
-mode of representation, in which it is put
can be represented:
by a set of actions appropriate for achieving a certain result
by a set of summary images and graphics
by a set of symbolic or logical propositions
-its economy: amount of information that must be held in mind
-its effective power: generative value of his set of learned propositions
Sequence and its uses: sequence in which the information is given will affect the mastery of thee subject learned
The form and pacing of reinforcement: learning depends upon knowledge of results at a time and at a place
Conclusions:
-These four should be taken into account while preparing curriculum materials
-curriculum should be prepared in collaboration with the subject matter expert, teacher, and the psychologist
-individual differences should be taken into account: while preparing for the whole class, should contain different ways of activating children
-curriculum reflects not only the nature of knowledge itself but also the nature knower and the knowledge getting process.
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Man: a course of study. Toward a theory of instruction, (p.73 - 101). Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University.
Chapter 4
Structure of the course: the content is man, his nature as species, forces that shaped and continue to shape his humanity
-explore five subjects: tool making, language, social organization, the management of man's prolonged childhood, and man's urge to explain his world
language: what is communication? - by contrasting the way humans and animals send and receive messages
social organization: to teach about society and that it is not fixed
- also concept of family, and kinship is presented
world view: all societies are created equal but they differ because of the tools they have
Form of the course: 1- talking to teacher
2- queries and contrasts
3- devices - stuff, materials for students
4- model exercises
5- documentaries
6- supplementary materials
The goal of the course was to
-give students respect for and confidence in powers of their own mind
-extend that respect and confidence to their power to think about human condition
-provide a set of workable models to simply analyze the nature of social world
-sense of respect for humanity as man of species
-leave the student with a sense of unfinished business of man's evolution
Process of Education
Jerome S. Bruner, The Process of Education, Harvard University Press (1960)
PREFACE
Suggests: Talk physics with students instead of talk about it to them
- spiral curriculum
- combining natural ways of thinking that he had not combined before
- any subject can be taught to any child at any age in some honest form
-education cannot be changed without affecting the society
curriculum: it is more for teachers than it is for students
PREFACE, 1960
The book represents set of views that came out of a ten day meeting by 35 scientists, scholars and educators on education.
INTRODUCTION
What shall we teach and to what end?
skills of a specific type and general understanding
structure of a subject: learning how things are related
- understanding the structure of a subject is the key
- permits many other things to be relate to it meaningfully
Four themes of the book :
1- the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching -
- rather than simply the mastery of facts ans techniques is the center of classical problem of transfer
2- Readiness for learning
- teaching of important subjects have been tried to be taught, even though they are very difficult
- basic ideas of science, math are very powerful in their simplest ways
3- Nature of intuition: intellectual techniques of arriving at plausible but tentative formulations without going through the analytic steps
4- Desire to learn and how it may be stimulated - interest in learning is the best stimulus for learning rather than grade or competitive advantange
Finally he concentrates on how best to aid the teacher in the task of instruction: - how to support all these with a good scaffolding
THE IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURE
Two ways of how learning can help us in the future:
1- specific transfer of training: its specific applicability to tasks
2- non-specific transfer: transfer of principles and attitudes
- broadening and deepening of knowledge in terms of basic and general ideas
-to be able to transfer the knowledge and recognize the applicability of an idea to a new situation, learner need to understand general nature of the subject
Four points for teaching fundamental structure of a subject:
1- understanding fundamentals makes subject more comprehensible
2- detailed material is kept in memory by the use of simplified representations - if some details are forgotten, from the basic formulas the rest can be reconstructed
3- understanding fundamental principles and ideas are the main road for transfer of training
4- constant reexamining material taught for its fundamental character, one is able to narrow the gap between advanced knowledge and elementary knowledge
MOTIVES OF LEARNING
long-run steps vs short-run steps - which gets one toward the long run
teaching should be aimed at a balanced level for every student
one has to come up with the mid point in creating the motivation in class, somewhere between apathy and wild excitement
motives of learning: much possible upon the arousal of interest, should be kept broad and diverse in expression.
AIDS TO TEACHING
Bruner describes the devices used to aid for teaching as devices for vicarious experience: film, tv, sound recording
Also models e.g. model of a respiratory system serves as an aid in teaching
model devices: sequential programs
dramatizing devices
automatizing devices: teaching machines
To sum up, Bruner supports the idea of having a teacher as the scaffolder, and devices to support the teaching, this could be a computer animation, simulation, game etc in our decade. These devices should not be conflicted with teacher .
PREFACE
Suggests: Talk physics with students instead of talk about it to them
- spiral curriculum
- combining natural ways of thinking that he had not combined before
- any subject can be taught to any child at any age in some honest form
-education cannot be changed without affecting the society
curriculum: it is more for teachers than it is for students
PREFACE, 1960
The book represents set of views that came out of a ten day meeting by 35 scientists, scholars and educators on education.
INTRODUCTION
What shall we teach and to what end?
skills of a specific type and general understanding
structure of a subject: learning how things are related
- understanding the structure of a subject is the key
- permits many other things to be relate to it meaningfully
Four themes of the book :
1- the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching -
- rather than simply the mastery of facts ans techniques is the center of classical problem of transfer
2- Readiness for learning
- teaching of important subjects have been tried to be taught, even though they are very difficult
- basic ideas of science, math are very powerful in their simplest ways
3- Nature of intuition: intellectual techniques of arriving at plausible but tentative formulations without going through the analytic steps
4- Desire to learn and how it may be stimulated - interest in learning is the best stimulus for learning rather than grade or competitive advantange
Finally he concentrates on how best to aid the teacher in the task of instruction: - how to support all these with a good scaffolding
THE IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURE
Two ways of how learning can help us in the future:
1- specific transfer of training: its specific applicability to tasks
2- non-specific transfer: transfer of principles and attitudes
- broadening and deepening of knowledge in terms of basic and general ideas
-to be able to transfer the knowledge and recognize the applicability of an idea to a new situation, learner need to understand general nature of the subject
Four points for teaching fundamental structure of a subject:
1- understanding fundamentals makes subject more comprehensible
2- detailed material is kept in memory by the use of simplified representations - if some details are forgotten, from the basic formulas the rest can be reconstructed
3- understanding fundamental principles and ideas are the main road for transfer of training
4- constant reexamining material taught for its fundamental character, one is able to narrow the gap between advanced knowledge and elementary knowledge
MOTIVES OF LEARNING
long-run steps vs short-run steps - which gets one toward the long run
teaching should be aimed at a balanced level for every student
one has to come up with the mid point in creating the motivation in class, somewhere between apathy and wild excitement
motives of learning: much possible upon the arousal of interest, should be kept broad and diverse in expression.
AIDS TO TEACHING
Bruner describes the devices used to aid for teaching as devices for vicarious experience: film, tv, sound recording
Also models e.g. model of a respiratory system serves as an aid in teaching
model devices: sequential programs
dramatizing devices
automatizing devices: teaching machines
To sum up, Bruner supports the idea of having a teacher as the scaffolder, and devices to support the teaching, this could be a computer animation, simulation, game etc in our decade. These devices should not be conflicted with teacher .
Design Factors for Effective Science Simulations
Plass, J.L., Homer, B.D., Milne, C., Jordan, T., Kalyuga, S., Kim, M., & Lee, H.J. (2009). Design Factors for Effective Science Simulations: Representation of Information. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 1(1), 16–35.
The paper claims that for instructional simulations for learning the way the representation is designed is very important. The hypothesis of the paper is that adding iconic representations to simulations can improve novice learners cognitive learning outcome.
This hypothesis is based on the dual coding theory, which explains how the visual information is processed.
The authors claim that the simulations are better learning materials than animations for low prior knowledge learners. Also, user interaction in simulations let the learners manipulate parameters to explore the behavior of the system. This interactivity can also cause high cognitive load if the learner has no prior knowledge, while the learner is trying to understand the dynamic relationship between the variables and representations. Paper suggests iconic representations that could help reduce the cognitive load.
icons: depictive representations: basic
symbols: descriptive representations: abstract, arbitrary
Paper suggests that iconic representations would be understood easily by novice users. This addition can reduce the cognitive load.
Learner's characteristics:
prior knowledge: organized knowledge structures from long term memory (schemas), can reduce working memory limitations by chunking
-learners' prior knowledge have to be considered for designing representations type
-learners with low prior knowledge understand better when there are iconic representations
Paper suggests that iconic representations would be understood easily by novice users. This addition can reduce the cognitive load.
Learner's characteristics:
prior knowledge: organized knowledge structures from long term memory (schemas), can reduce working memory limitations by chunking
-learners' prior knowledge have to be considered for designing representations type
-learners with low prior knowledge understand better when there are iconic representations
Emotion, Decision Making and the Orbitofrontal Cortex
Isen, A, M., Daubman, K.A., & Nowicki, G.P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 1122-1131.
The hypothesis of the paper is that decision making is a process that is influenced by marker signals that arise during emotions and feelings. the paper research is on emotions, frontal lobe and their relationship with decision making.
Orbitofrontal cortex: represents decision making structure in a neural system
Ventromedial sector includes both the gyrus rectus and mesial half of the orbital gyri.
-Damage to this sector disrupts social behavior profoundly: unable to observe social conventions and unable to decide advantageously on matters pertaining to their own lives
The somatic marker hypothesis proposes there is an important connection between emotion and feeling and decision making. So a defect in emotion causes an impaired decision making.
The decision making process is affected by consequence of a decision, the regret after some risky decision.
The hypothesis of the paper is that decision making is a process that is influenced by marker signals that arise during emotions and feelings. the paper research is on emotions, frontal lobe and their relationship with decision making.
Orbitofrontal cortex: represents decision making structure in a neural system
Ventromedial sector includes both the gyrus rectus and mesial half of the orbital gyri.
-Damage to this sector disrupts social behavior profoundly: unable to observe social conventions and unable to decide advantageously on matters pertaining to their own lives
The somatic marker hypothesis proposes there is an important connection between emotion and feeling and decision making. So a defect in emotion causes an impaired decision making.
The decision making process is affected by consequence of a decision, the regret after some risky decision.
Positive Affect Facilitates Creative Problem Solving
Isen, A, M., Daubman, K.A., & Nowicki, G.P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 1122-1131.
Tests have shown that positive affects influence cognitive organization because they reflect relatedness that among cognitive elements.
Experiments done in this paper is for whether positive affect promotes creativity and that whether one with positive affect categorizes stimuli better. And the positive affects are created by a gift of candy or comedy film.
Results show that creativity can be promoted by positive affective state. This suggests for educators to regard everyone as potentially creative and make sure to create the conditions for this by rewarding the students or maybe an atmosphere of interpersonal respect for good self-esteem.
Tests have shown that positive affects influence cognitive organization because they reflect relatedness that among cognitive elements.
Experiments done in this paper is for whether positive affect promotes creativity and that whether one with positive affect categorizes stimuli better. And the positive affects are created by a gift of candy or comedy film.
Results show that creativity can be promoted by positive affective state. This suggests for educators to regard everyone as potentially creative and make sure to create the conditions for this by rewarding the students or maybe an atmosphere of interpersonal respect for good self-esteem.
Broaden and Build Theory of Positive Emotions
Fredrickson, B.L. (2001). The Role of Emotion in Positive Psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 2
The author describes a theory about positive emotions which have been neglected by the study of emotions and calls this theory: broaden and build theory because the positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought–action repertoires and build their enduring personal resources.
The author claims that positive emotions widen people's mind, for example:
- joy pushes the limits and makes people more creative,
- love urges to play with, explore the loved ones
These actions caused by positive emotions to play, to explore, or to savour and integrate, shows how positive emotions broaden one's thinking and actions. And this broadening builds enduring personal resources.
The author also argues the positive emotions are not a signal of well being but also produce a health and well being. Which can result in more socially integrated, knowledgeable, effective people.
The author describes a theory about positive emotions which have been neglected by the study of emotions and calls this theory: broaden and build theory because the positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought–action repertoires and build their enduring personal resources.
The author claims that positive emotions widen people's mind, for example:
- joy pushes the limits and makes people more creative,
- love urges to play with, explore the loved ones
These actions caused by positive emotions to play, to explore, or to savour and integrate, shows how positive emotions broaden one's thinking and actions. And this broadening builds enduring personal resources.
The author also argues the positive emotions are not a signal of well being but also produce a health and well being. Which can result in more socially integrated, knowledgeable, effective people.
Saturday, May 7, 2011
Emotional Design in Multimedia Learning
Um, E. & Plass, J.L. (2010). Emotional Design in Multimedia Learning. Submitted for publication.
Paper describes the study about whether multimedia learning environments can be designed to induce positive emotions and whether these emotions enhance comprehension of the material.
facilitation hypothesis: positive moods facilitate performance on solving tasks
Isen et al. found that:
1-long term memory: positive affect can serve as a retrieval cue for positive material
2-positive mood may affect cognitive processes
suppression hypothesis: moods can have negative effect on reasoning
can impose unnecessary load - extraneous cognitive load
Emotions as extraneous cognitive load:
adding unimportant but interesting elements can result in extraneous cognitive load.
Positive or negative emotions can both be activating or deactivating
Study in this paper investigates the design within three effects:
color combination: warm cause arousal of emotions, high saturation effects feelings of excitement, -saturated and analogous bright warm colors
anthropomorphism: human like elements are perceived better than non human, e.g. adding facial expression to body cells in a simulation
baby-face bias: people or things with round features, small nose, large eyes, short chins perceived as baby like and result in arousals of feelings: innocence, honesty, helplessness which induce positive affect in the learner
Results:
-positive emotions can be induced through the learning material by applying emotional design principles
-internal induction of positive emotions through emotional design increased comprehension and transfer
-positive emotions:
Paper describes the study about whether multimedia learning environments can be designed to induce positive emotions and whether these emotions enhance comprehension of the material.
facilitation hypothesis: positive moods facilitate performance on solving tasks
Isen et al. found that:
1-long term memory: positive affect can serve as a retrieval cue for positive material
2-positive mood may affect cognitive processes
suppression hypothesis: moods can have negative effect on reasoning
can impose unnecessary load - extraneous cognitive load
Emotions as extraneous cognitive load:
adding unimportant but interesting elements can result in extraneous cognitive load.
Positive or negative emotions can both be activating or deactivating
Study in this paper investigates the design within three effects:
color combination: warm cause arousal of emotions, high saturation effects feelings of excitement, -saturated and analogous bright warm colors
anthropomorphism: human like elements are perceived better than non human, e.g. adding facial expression to body cells in a simulation
baby-face bias: people or things with round features, small nose, large eyes, short chins perceived as baby like and result in arousals of feelings: innocence, honesty, helplessness which induce positive affect in the learner
Results:
-positive emotions can be induced through the learning material by applying emotional design principles
-internal induction of positive emotions through emotional design increased comprehension and transfer
-positive emotions:
- induced before the learning task reduce the mental effort during learning,
- induced during the learning task, reduced the perceived difficulty of the learning task
-learners' satisfaction increased with the positive emotions
Monday, May 2, 2011
In Defense of Advance Organizers
Ausubel, D.P. (1978). In Defense of Advance Organizers: A Reply to the Critics. Review of Educational Research, 48, 251-257.
advance organizers: introductory material at higher level of abstraction, generality and inclusiveness
-one can identify advance organizer by comparing the learning passage and knowledge of the pupil's.
expository organizers: used when the learning material is completely new
comparative organizers: used when the learning material is familiar and relatable to previously learned ideas
- not only provide scaffolding, but also identifies by similarities and differences between new and previously learned
- author suggests that we should expect advance organizers to facilitate learning only for high ability students, if only small percentage of the students can pass the test
advance organizers: introductory material at higher level of abstraction, generality and inclusiveness
-one can identify advance organizer by comparing the learning passage and knowledge of the pupil's.
expository organizers: used when the learning material is completely new
comparative organizers: used when the learning material is familiar and relatable to previously learned ideas
- not only provide scaffolding, but also identifies by similarities and differences between new and previously learned
- author suggests that we should expect advance organizers to facilitate learning only for high ability students, if only small percentage of the students can pass the test
Sunday, May 1, 2011
Enhancing Instructional Efficiency of Interactive E-learning Environments:
Kalyuga, S. (2007). Enhancing Instructional Efficiency of Interactive E-learning Environments: A Cognitive Load Perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 387-399.
Important features of human cognitive architecture:
Long term memory: unlimited storage in the form of hierarchical schematic knowledge
Working memory: severe limitation in capacity and duration
-cognitive load results from this processing limitation in wm, when new chunks of information comes
-one can borrow elements of information from LTM, from already existing schemas...prior knowledge
-if there is no prior knowledge then problem solving mechanisms as a solution which takes a lot of resources in wm causing cognitive load
-need a knowledge base instructional guidance in such a cognitively inefficient search situation
Important features of human cognitive architecture:
Long term memory: unlimited storage in the form of hierarchical schematic knowledge
Working memory: severe limitation in capacity and duration
-cognitive load results from this processing limitation in wm, when new chunks of information comes
-one can borrow elements of information from LTM, from already existing schemas...prior knowledge
-if there is no prior knowledge then problem solving mechanisms as a solution which takes a lot of resources in wm causing cognitive load
-need a knowledge base instructional guidance in such a cognitively inefficient search situation
- if there is internal LTM knowledge structures, the cognitive system first uses that. - frequently used structures are preferred
- For novices, external guidance is the only source
Balancing the external guidance and the knowledge level of the learner is important: too much external guidance to an expert can interfere with the cognitive process and result in overload; also too little guidance for a novice learner won't help the learner since he doesn't have knowledge structures
intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load:
intrinsic: complexity of the material
extraneous: information that is irrelevant to learning
-for a better learning the total of these shouldn't exceed WM capacity
levels of interactivity in interactive e-learning environments:
1- feedback level
2- manipulation level : real time online change
3- adaptation level : responses that tailors to learner's previous behavior
4- communication level: dynamic online learning that involve flexible, non-predetermined, iteratively adapted responses to learners
managing cognitive load in interactive e-learning environments
-levels of learner's knowledge is important
-expertise reversal effect could result when: too much guidance, hints or feedback are given for an expert
-learner control is important for pace and order of presentations, etc
-adaptive environments can be good for responding to different cognitive characteristics
levels of interactivity in interactive e-learning environments:
1- feedback level
2- manipulation level : real time online change
3- adaptation level : responses that tailors to learner's previous behavior
4- communication level: dynamic online learning that involve flexible, non-predetermined, iteratively adapted responses to learners
managing cognitive load in interactive e-learning environments
-levels of learner's knowledge is important
-expertise reversal effect could result when: too much guidance, hints or feedback are given for an expert
-learner control is important for pace and order of presentations, etc
-adaptive environments can be good for responding to different cognitive characteristics
Promoting Cognition in Multimedia Interactivity Research
Kennedy, G. E. (2004). Promoting cognition in multimedia interactivity research. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 15, 43-61.
instructional models:
1- reactive: learner is passive, instructivist
2- proactive: learner is active, constructivist
3- interactive: between reactive and proactive, information transmission and simpler levels of learner manipulations of the material and activities in the learner's own understanding experience
Jonassen's three levels of interactivity:
1-task analysis
2-level of processing
3-type of interactive program
Cognitive Interaction Model:
instructional models:
1- reactive: learner is passive, instructivist
2- proactive: learner is active, constructivist
3- interactive: between reactive and proactive, information transmission and simpler levels of learner manipulations of the material and activities in the learner's own understanding experience
Jonassen's three levels of interactivity:
1-task analysis
2-level of processing
3-type of interactive program
Cognitive Interaction Model:
Three main component:
- instructional events: designed with implicit and explicit goals in mind
- functional interactivity: behaviors and actions of students, bidirectional relationship between instructional events and the behavioral processes of users
- cognitive interactivity: cognitive processes of students, proposes the relationship between instructional events and students' cognitive processes is mediated by behavioral processes.
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